| National Politics in the Gilded Age (1873-1896) |
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Sections:- The Gilded Age
- The Election of 1880
- The Assassination of James Garfield
- The Presidency of Chester Arthur
- The Pendleton Civil Service Act
- The Chinese Exclusion Act
- The Election Campaign of 1884
- Mugwumps and the Outcome of the 1884 Election
- The First Cleveland Administration
- The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887
- The Election of 1888
- The Presidency of Benjamin Harrison
- The McKinley Tariff and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act
- The Sherman Anti-Trust Act
- The Election of 1892
- The Second Cleveland Administration and the Depression of 1893
- The Election of 1896: William Jennings Bryan
- The Election of 1896: The Grand Realignment
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| Historical Context
The term "Gilded Age" was factitiously coined by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley in their 1873 novel The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today. The "Gilded Age" generally refers to the decades between the end of reconstruction and the turn of the century (about 1877 to 1900). It was a time of unprecedented industrial and economic growth, tumultuous politics, and a wave of immigration. The dazzling flurry of technological innovation that occurred is sometimes referred to as the "Second Industrial Revolution." The word "monopoly" could easily characterize this era, in which a few trusts and individuals thrived and amassed fortunes while many Americans lived in poverty and lost their personal autonomy to the corporate machine. The Gilded Age was a formative period in American history, in which the standards for modern politics and economics were just beginning to take shape. Thus, opportunities economic and political corruption were exploited to the fullest. As politicians and businessmen both groped for ways of coping with life in industrial America, a palpable tension arose between government expansion and the doctrine of lassiez-faire (as little government as necessary).
The three main themes of the Gilded Age can be summarized thusly: lassiez-faire versus government expansion, economic and political corruption, and coagulation of modern political and economic norms.
Attached Documents
An edited Gilded Age Timeline.
A photo of Mark Twain.
A political cartoon entitled, "Hopelessly Bound to the Stake."
A 1900 political cartoon entitled, "What a Funny Little Government."
Questions to Consider
1. Why would Twain describe this era as the "gilded" age rather than the "golden" age?
2. How do you interpret the message of the "Hopelessly Bound" cartoon?
3. How do you interpret the message of the "What a Funny Little Government" cartoon? |
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| Historical Context
After 18 years in Congress, Ohioan James Garfield became the dark horse Republican nominee for President at the 1880 convention. His running mate was Chester Arthur of New York. The race between Garfield and the Democratic nominee, Winfield Hancock, centered on the tariff issue. Republicans won favor with business, labor, and Northerners by advocating a protective tariff to support domestically manufactured goods. Democrats sought to appease the interests of farmers and Southerners by opposing such tariffs as inflationary and anti-consumer.
Attached Documents
The pie graph of the popular vote on the electoral map below demonstrates the divided nature of the American electorate. Garfield's margin of victory in the electoral vote was less narrow, illustrating the "legitimizing" function the electoral college can fulfill. These deep partisan divisions would continue throughout the 1880's and 1890's.
Questions to Consider
1. Which regions voted Democratic and why? Which voted Republican and why?
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| Historical Context
Garfield's presidency was dramatically cut short after only four months. On July 2, 1881, a disappointed office seeker shot and mortally wounded the president at a Washington train station. The crazed assassin, attorney Charles Guiteau was apparently upset over his rejection after repeated attempts to be appointed as the consul in Paris; he was denied because of his lack in qualifications as well as his mental illness. Garfield’s assassination became a catalyst for the passage of the Civil Service Reform Act, which officially made the United States’ bureaucracy a meritocracy instead of a system rooted in patronage and graft.
Attached Documents
The New York Times article below covers a sermon that describes the underlying reasons for the "National Calamity" and calls for reform.
Questions to Consider
1. What does Dr. Newman cite as the leading causes of the President's death?
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| Historical Context
Chester Arthur became the twenty-first President of the United States after President Garfield was slain by an assassin. Though he was considered to be an honorable man in both his personal and professional lives, Arthur was a product of and advocate of the patronage or "spoils" system, in which political appointments were awarded for loyalty and campaign contributions. As vice-president, Arthur defended the system as Garfield struggled against New York political machine boss Roscoe Conkling. Thus, it was a surprise to all when Arthur proved himself a competent and independent executive who was able to make tough and unpopular decisions. For example, he pushed for lower protective tariffs, though Republican politicians usually sought to appease corporate constituents.
Questions to Consider
1. Who do protective tariffs benefit and why is it remarkable that a Republican president in the 1880's advocated lowering them?
2. How did Arthur balance the demands of his corporate and labor constituents with the larger interests of the American people?
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One of Arthur's most surprising actions was his support of the Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883, which created commission to devise a new system for filling vacancies and outlawed political contributions from civil servants. This reform was in line with the larger trend of professionalization in areas like medicine, law, and government administration.
Questions to Consider
1. What is the primary goal of the Civil Service Act?
2. Why do you think Arthur, himself a beneficiary of the spoils system, advocated such a reform?
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Another noteworthy piece of legislation that came during Arthur's presidency was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which was the first federal restriction on immigration. Arthur vetoed a more restrictive version of the bill, which angered labor groups threatened by Chinese laborers, but signed one that halted Chinese immigration for ten years and forbid citizenship for Chinese persons already in the country.
Questions to Consider
1. Why would labor groups favor banning Chinese immigrants?
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| Historical Context
In 1884, the Republican nomination went to Maine's James Blaine, despite his implication in the Credit Mobilier scandal while Speaker of the House in the 1870's (in which Congressmen received kickbacks from railroad companies in return for favorable legislation). The Democratic nominee, Grover Cleveland, also had a skeleton in his closet- an illegitimate son that he admitted to fathering during the campaign. Despite his admission, Cleveland represented reform and was seen by the middle class as a champion against corruption and corporate influence in government.
Attached Documents
The Harper's cover illustration below depicts Blaine, dubbed the "Plumed Knight," backstage, putting on a pristine shirt upside down.
Lingering hostilities from the Civil War led both parties to "wave the bloody shirt" around election time. The pro-Republican "Tract No. 2" below is an example of such rhetoric.
Questions to Consider
1. Analyze the many symbolic aspects of the Harper's "Plumed Knight" cover. Consider both the setting and Blaine's attire.
2. Summarize the accusations levied against Democrats in "Tract No. 2." Why is this an example of "bloody shirt" campaigning? |
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| Historical Context
In another extremely close election, Cleveland narrowly won the popular vote thanks to divisions within the Republican Party. Idealistic Republican "Mugwumps," who voted for Cleveland because of their disgust over Blaine's alleged indiscretions, were instrumental in securing the first Democratic presidency since James Buchanan. This mass defection of reform-minded Republicans became known as the "Republican Revolt."
Attached Documents
The "Honest Republican Voter" cartoon portrays the split in the Republican party over Blaine's nomination. The "honest" (Mugwump) Republican voter chooses the path of independence, following the brains end of the Republican elephant.
The map below illustrates the continuing partisan division of the nation's voters in the Gilded Age.
Questions to Consider
1. Compare the 1880 electoral map to the 1884 electoral map. Which states outside the reliably Democratic "Solid South" voted for Cleveland?
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| Historical Context
During his first term, Cleveland earned the respect of both parties by affirming his moderate reputation. As a "caretaker" president, he rarely proposed legislation on his own. However, he pushed civil service reform and opposed the costly pensions that Civil War veterans clamored for. He also sided with creditors and conservatives as a proponent of the gold standard in the controversy over currency (see module 48).
Attached Documents
In 1887, President Cleveland dedicated his State of the Union Address to one of the defining issues of his presidency and his time: tariff reform. After the Civil War, the government routinely ran a budget surplus. Though manufacturers advocated the tariff because it allowed them to charge higher prices in the absence of foreign competition, farmers opposed it for the same reason. Here Cleveland explains the complex situation in a relatively simplified manner.
Questions to Consider
1. What problems does Cleveland see with the tax system in the United States? What actions does he recommend and why?
2. How do you think big business, Republicans, and Northerners reacted to Cleveland's signing of the Interstate Commerce Act and his stance on the tariff? How might this affect his chances for re-election? Why? |
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In 1887, Cleveland signed the Interstate Commerce Act, which established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC). The ICC was first independent regulatory agency in the history of the United States Government. It was designed to regulate the monopolistic railroad industry, which employed discriminatory pricing practices and kickbacks to benefit big business, like Standard Oil, and politicians, like James Blaine.
Questions to Consider
1. After reading the excerpts from the Interstate Commerce Act, what can you infer about the specific practices of the railroad industry that the act was designed to reform?
2. Why was the Interstate Commerce Act important in the Gilded Age and in U.S. history in general? |
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| Historical Context
President Cleveland's advocacy of tariff reduction, as illustrated by the dedication of his 1887 State of the Union message, set the stage for the presidential election of 1888. Cleveland's position on the tariff alienated the Republicans who supported him over Blaine in 1884. Thus, Cleveland defined the major issue of the campaign as one that reunited the Republican party endangered his chances for another term.
The Republicans had difficultly agreeing on a candidate, but on the eighth ballot at the convention, they settled on Benjamin Harrison of Indiana. Harrison was a former Senator, a Civil War veteran and the grandson of former president William Henry Harrison.
Attached Documents
The campaign was subdued and narrowly focused on the tariff issue. When the ballots were counted, Cleveland narrowly won the popular vote, but Harrison won with a majority of the electoral vote.
Questions to Consider
1. Compare the electoral map of 1888 with that of 1884. Which two states did Cleveland lose to Harrison? How is this related to the tariff issue?
2. What do the election results from the 1880's tell you about the relative strength of the major parties? |
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| Historical Context
Though he received 100,000 fewer votes than incumbent Grover Cleveland, Benjamin Harrison was vindicated in the electoral vote and became the nation's 23rd President. He was active in establishing trade relations with Mexico and Central America and supported civil service reform. Harrison was the first president since 1875 to enjoy majorities from his party in both houses of Congress, which amounted to a flurry of legislative activity during his first two years in office. However, huge appropriations bills like those providing pensions to disabled Union veterans and their dependents increased the national budget to over $1 billion. Democrats were able to successfully campaign against the "Billion Dollar Congress" in the midterm elections of 1890 and the presidential election of 1892.
Questions to Consider
1. When both houses of Congress and the presidency are all controlled by the same party, how is the legislative process affected?
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| Historical Context
Two major pieces of economic legislation passed under Harrison. In return for passing the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, Republicans established the protectionist McKinley Tariff of 1890. The McKinley Tariff was the second highest in US History, raising duties by 50 percent. It also had the effect of raising prices for consumers. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act put more silver-backed money into circulation, but it also led to a depletion the government's gold reserves because an unexpectedly large number of citizens took advantage of a provision in the law that allowed holders of US Treasury bonds to redeem them for gold or silver- almost all of them opted for gold.
Questions to Consider
1. How did Harrison's policies on the silver issue and the tariff differ from those of President Cleveland?
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The Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 was the government's first intervention to remedy the restraint of trade caused by monopolies and trusts. Though the measure passed unanimously in both houses of Congress, the Act was vague in its definitions and depended on the courts to establish cogent precedents and eliminate anti-competitive corporate tactics. It was not until the end of the 19th century that the Act was stringently enforced and interpreted.
In 1895, the Supreme Court made its first ruling in consideration of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. The opinion from United States v. E.C. Knight and Co. is an example of the loose interpretation and enforcement of the Act in its early years. According to Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, Congress may, "regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states..." Thus, the federal government cannot control economic activity within one state. In the Knight case, court declined to apply the Sherman Anti-Trust law to a refining corporation that controlled 98% of the nation's sugar because it did not consider manufacturing to be interstate commerce.
Questions to Consider
1. What does the opinion state about the intent of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act?
2. Does the court deny that the sugar refinery corporation is a monopoly? According to the opinion, why doesn't the law apply to them?
3. Do you agree with the Court's conclusion that manufacturing is only indirectly related to interstate commerce in this case? Why or why not? What would your opinion be if you were on the Court? |
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| Historical Context
As campaign season began, Democratic former president Grover Cleveland's nomination to his party's ticket was all but assured, but incumbent President Benjamin Harrison faced some opposition within the Republican party before securing his re-nomination. Three third parties, the Prohibition Party, the Populist Party, and the Socialist Labor Party joined the race for the presidency as well.
Attached Documents
On November 8, 1892, Grover Cleveland made history as the only president to be elected to two non-consecutive terms. He won by the largest margin of any other president during the Gilded Age and was the first Democratic president to have majorities in both houses of Congress since before the Civil War.
Questions to Consider
1. Which states did Cleveland pick up in the Election of 1892? Did these states have industrial or agrarian economies?
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As Grover Cleveland took the oath of office for a second time, the country was on the brink of economic depression. During a period of rapid corporate and industrial growth, many businesses and railroads borrowed heavily and found themselves overextended when the economy stalled. Over 16,000 business went bankrupt, 500 banks failed, and the unemployment rate exceeded 20 percent. Wage cuts led to violent incidents of labor unrest and declining standards of living.
Attached Documents
Cleveland, to the dismay of many fellow Democrats, advocated the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act and a return to the gold standard as one remedy for the financial crisis. The Silver Purchase Act required the government to purchase silver for currency, but as more silver became available, its value dropped, prompting people to cash their silver certificates in for gold. This depleted the nation's gold reserves and discouraged investment. The panic was exasperated when the nation's gold reserves dropped below $100 million because of the fear that the nation would not be able to redeem all of the treasury notes should the trend of cashing them in continue. In the summer of 1893, President Cleveland called a special session of Congress to address the growing crisis. On August 8th, he delivered a message to Congress advocating the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which he characterized as the cause of "financial distrust and fear." With considerable political wrangling, Cleveland managed to leverage his power into a full repeal of the Act by October. The forced repeal of the Act further divided the Democratic party on the issue of currency. However, return to the gold standard did not alleviate the financial hardships of the 1890's, which did not run their course until 1897.
Questions to Consider
1. According to Cleveland, what is the problem with the Sherman Silver Purchase Act?
2. What psychological effect does the depreciation of currency have, according to the President? |
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| Historical Context
President Cleveland's actions during the depression alienated the majority of Democrats, who were pro-silver. Democrats instead nominated the thirty six year old former Congressman and electrifying orator William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska, making him the youngest ever presidential nominee. The populist People's party also endorsed him. Bryan, a prominent member of the emerging Progressive Movement, was called “The Great Commoner” because of his commitment and appeal to working and middle class Americans. His support for the backing of American currency with silver instead of gold was due to the presumed inflation that it would cause, allowing farmers to more easily pay back their debts.
Attached Documents
The Platforms of the Democratic and People's Parties presented below are edited to highlight the major campaign issues of the day. Both of these parties were generally interested in easing the economic pressure on the middle and lower classes by promoting bimetallism in currency and lowering tariffs. The populist People's Party also included demands for public ownership of certain industries and a more direct democracy.
Bryan's "Cross of Gold" Speech in favor of bimetallic currency, was delivered at the Democratic Convention in 1896 and is known today as the most famous political speech in American history. This later photo of Bryan illustrates his characteristically dynamic and explosive style of rhetoric.
Questions to Consider
1. Briefly summarize the economic policies of the Democrats and explain the rationale behind them.
2. How did President Cleveland deviate from the Democrat's agenda as expressed in their 1896 platform?
3. What planks do the parties have in common?
4. What are some of the more radical ideas expressed in the People's Party platform? Which of them eventually became law?
5. What does Bryan mean by "the broader class of businessmen" in the "Cross of Gold" speech? |
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| Historical Context
Though Democrats repudiated the policies of Grover Cleveland by nominating William Jennings Bryan for the 1896 campaign, the party was deeply divided and in disarray. The Republicans had greater success in agreeing upon a nominee. William McKinley, the governor and former congressman of Ohio, was a pro-business protectionist who was instrumental in the passage of record-high tariffs during the Harrison administration. Prior to the twentieth century, it was customary for presidential candidates not to campaign openly. McKinley ran a traditional "front porch" campaign, in which devout supporters would convene at a candidate's home to hear them speak. Meanwhile, Bryan broke with tradition by touring the country.
Bryan's myopic emphasis on the silver issue ultimately cost him the election. Not only did it arouse existing fears of anarchy, but also it alienated urban, industrial states with increasingly high populations. William McKinley won by the biggest margin since 1872. The 1896 is often characterized as a "realigning election" because it broke the stalemate between the parties to usher in an era of Republican dominance that thrived until the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930's. When William McKinley was inaugurated as the twenty-fifth President of the United States in 1897, both the depression and the silver issue itself were in decline as foreign policy took center stage in presidential politics.
Questions to Consider
1. What was the Republican Party's stance on the tariff and currency issues?
2. What geographic and social sectors did the Republican policies appeal to? Why? |
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