| The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening (1689-1784) |
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Sections:- John Locke A Letter concerning Toleration (1689)
- Governor Joseph Dudley v. Thomas Trowbridge (1705)
- Jonathan Edwards “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (July 8, 1741)
- Jonathan Edwards “The Great Awakening” (1743)
- Benjamin Franklin’s “America as a Land of Opportunity” (1751)
- Immanuel Kant “What is Enlightenment?” (1784)
- Benjamin Franklin “Experiments with Balloons;” Two letters (December 1, 1783 & Jan. 16, 1784)
- Adam Smith “The Wealth of Nations” (1776)
- Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" (1776)
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| Historical Context
As one of the most prominent English Empiricist philosophers, John Locke (1632 –1704) left an indelible mark on the history of political thought and is widely regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers. Son of a country lawyer, Locke was educated at the renown Westminster School in London. Later, he attended Oxford where he met many of England’s most notable scientists and scholars. During his years at Oxford, Locke was mentored by Robert Boyle, the leading scientist at the University. Boyle’s mechanical philosophy would later influence the course of Locke’s own intellectual development.
Locke lived during a tumultuous period in English history. During his youth, the country was ravaged by civil war, an execution of a king, the dictatorship of Oliver Cromwell and the later restoration of the monarchy. Moreover, Newton, whom Locke befriended in 1688, drastically altered the intellectual climate of Europe. As one of the leading politicians of the period, Anthony Ashley Cooper, the first Earl of Shaftesbury, hired Locke as his private physician and sectary. Throughout most of his life, Locke’s fate was interwoven with that of the Earl of Shaftesbury.
In 1690, Locke published “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding,” which was a philosophical work that argued against innate ideas within the human mind. Many scholars date the beginning of the modern conception of the self from this work. “Two Treatises of Government,” Locke’s most important political work, appeared shortly thereafter. In it, Locke distinguishes between legitimate and illegitimate government and makes an argument in favor of revolution against tyranny. According to him, government could only be legitimate if it received the consent of the governed. Essentially, Locke undermined the theory of divine right of kings, prevalent in Europe at the time, and instead asserted that governmental power was limited. Additionally, he proposed the separation of governmental powers into, legislative, executive, and federative branches. Locke’s political thought exercised a tremendous influence on the founding fathers of the United States. In fact, Thomas Jefferson would later describe him as one of the three "greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception".
Attached Documents
This document, published in 1689, is entitled “A Letter Concerning Toleration.” Unquestionably, it is a milestone in the development of a modern understanding of the relationship between religion and government. Previously, rulers believed they had the right to enforce their religious vies on their subjects. Yet, after nearly a century of incessant wars over religion throughout England and the continent, Locke considered this view to be impractical, unethical and irrational. Ultimately, Locke puts forth a convincing argument for the toleration of all religious beliefs that were not seditious or dangerous.
The image is a portrait of John Locke.
Questions to Consider
1. According to Locke, why is forced religious practice actually an “obstacle” to salvation? Why can’t religion be forced?
2. What does true faith consist of?
3. What should rulers use instead of penalties to persuade subjects of their religion? Why?
4. Instead of religion, what is the real concern of government?
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| Historical Context
In the eighteenth-century, an American upper class had emerged and had begun to mimic their counterparts in England. At the same time, the power of royal governors was growing, social distinctions hardened, and English law was widely observed. The new socio-political elite was built largely on the growing trans-Atlantic commerce. Although the American aristocracy had comparatively limited wealth, they did, however, adopt many of the behaviors of British elite.
Attached Documents
During this same period, however, ordinary Americans made increased demands for “English liberties” in the face of aristocratic privilege and power. An important Enlightenment principle was the limitation of government power over the citizenry. In 1705, Governor Joseph Dudley (1647-1720) of Massachusetts charged two cart drivers of insubordination. For common American, this case is illustrative of a growing challenge to established authority.
The image is a portrait of Joseph Dudley.
Questions to Consider
1. What led to the conflict between the two parties?
2. According to Dudley, Thomas Trowbridge responded to his demand to move saying “I am as good flesh & blood as you.” What do you think is meant by this statement? How did Dudley respond?
3. What threat did Dudley’s son make toward Trowbridge? How is this indicative of his position in the social hierarchy of Massachusetts?
4. How did Dudley himself insult Trowbridge? How did the governor harm Trowbridge? Why do you think Dudley believed it was permissible to behave in such a manner?
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| Historical Context
During the Great Awakening, Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) was unquestionably the most famous and influential of America’s revivalist theologians. A prolific writer on Christianity, Edward’s work is essentially expressive of two ideas: the ultimate power and majesty of God and the God’s amazing holiness. Born into a Puritan evangelical household as the fifth of eventually eleven children, Edwards was the son of a preacher and was steeped in the Calvinist-Puritan heritage. At thirteen, he attended Yale and studied theology and philosophy. In his studies, Edwards synthesized traditional Protestantism with Newton’s physics, Locke’s psychology, Shaftesbury’s aesthetics, and Malebranche’s moral philosophy.
In 1727, Edwards was ordained as a minister at Northampton and served as an assistant to his grandfather. Two years later Edwards took sole control of this large congregation, and began a series of famous sermons. Around 1733, a fervid religious revivalist movement began in Northampton which led to three hundred new converts to Edwards’ church. By the winter of 1739–1740, the movement had reached such an intensity that it was dubbed “the Great Awakening.” With his powerful fire and brimstone sermons, Edwards assumed the mantle of leader of the movement. His teachings and writings were reflective of the strong millenarian and prophetic interest of his time.
During the Great Awakening, more orthodox ministers criticized Edwards for his congregation’s emotional outbursts during his sermons which included swooning, outcries and convulsions. Yet Edwards countered that these "bodily effects" were expressions of the inner-workings of God and proof of spiritual conversion. Nevertheless, as the movement waned, Edwards’ preaching became increasingly unpopular and, in 1750, he was dismissed from the Northampton pulpit. Afterwards, he became a minister in Stockbridge and began missionary work among the Indians. In 1758, Edwards died after complications from a smallpox inoculation. Today, he is widely regarded as the most original and influential theologian during the colonial era. One scholar has declared that, once the student penetrates behind the technical language of Edwards’ theology, "[one] discovers an intelligence which, as much as Emerson's, Melville's, or Mark Twain's, is both an index of American society and a comment upon it."
Attached Documents
This document, entitled “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” is undoubtedly Edwards’ most famous sermon. Delivered in Enfield, Connecticut during the height of the Great Awakening, the document is indicative of Edwards’ highly emotional tone and the millenarian dread it evoked among his listeners. After he first presented it, the audience was so moved that many attendees were found openly weeping. Moreover, it was widely reported that the congregation began swooning, crying, and convulsing. Nevertheless, it remains the most important document from the Great Awakening.
The image is a portrait of Jonathan Edwards.
Questions to Consider
1. Describe the language of Edward’s sermon. What general techniques does he utilize to convey his message?
2. According to Edwards, what punishment awaits for the sinner?
3. What can sinners do to protect themselves from God’s anger?
4. What metaphors does Edwards employ to evoke the anger of God? What metaphors does he use to show the helplessness of the sinner?
5. Can the sinner expect God’s mercy? Why or why not?
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| Historical Context
In the mid-eighteenth century, America experienced a wave of evangelical revivalism that was without precedent. The movement of religious enthusiasm began among American colonial Protestants in the 1730’s was part of a broader global evangelical wave that also occurred in England, Scotland and Germany. Within these Protestant countries, the movement developed as a counter to the tenets of the Enlightenment, which stressed reason and rationality over traditional religious beliefs and superstitions.
In America, the first manifestations of the Great Awakening occurred among Presbyterians in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Sparked by the preaching of Reverend William Tennent and his four sons, the Great Awakening was a reaction against the formality of the established congregational churches. Among other noteworthy preachers of the Great Awakening, George Whitefield, a Methodist preacher from England, traveled across the colonies and delivered sermons in a dramatic and emotional style, accepting everyone into his audiences. In fact, Whitefield was among the first to preach to slaves. For Whitefield, humanity was so sinful that it was completely dependent on an omnipotent God for salvation. Others imitated his message and crowds were often moved to tears with a terrifying message of fire and brimstone.
The Great Awakening left an indelible mark on the American psyche. It led to the founding of a number of academies and colleges, notably Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth. It was the first common experience shared by large numbers of Americans, and, in many ways, fostered the development of the American identity. Additionally, as people became deeply involved in their religion, they began to study the bible at home, contributing to the decentralization of religious education. Lastly, the movement led to a fissure within American Protestantism. Divisions emerged between traditionalists who insisted on ritual and doctrine and the new revivalists who stressed an intensely passionate commitment to religion. The former became known as “old lights” and the latter “new lights.”
Attached Documents
Perhaps the most famous preacher of the period was Jonathan Edwards who traveled New England delivering passionate sermons that deeply moved his listeners. Edwards stressed the depth of personal guilt and the ability of Christ to save. In the process, Edwards directed American religion away from ritual and ceremony and made spirituality intensely personal. He deliberately targeted his sermons at New England’s youth who seemed more susceptible to revivalism. In this document, Edwards describes the Great Awakening and its effects in Northampton, Massachusetts.
The first image is George Whitefield.
The second image is a portrait of Jonathan Edwards.
Questions to Consider
1. What was the state of religion in Northampton before the Great Awakening? What were people’s morals like?
2. In the past, what had people been doing after the Sabbath sermon? Once this practice was denounced, what was the reaction of parents? Of children?
3. What was the effect of the Great Awakening on the minds of those in Northampton?
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| Historical Context
Before he became perhaps the most famous founding father, Benjamin Franklin worked as a printer, printer, scientist, philosopher, publisher, inventor and civic activist. Renown for the diversity of his interests, his writings earned him respect of Enlightenment scientists and intellectuals across Europe. In 1751, Franklin wrote “Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind,” arguable one of the most important American essays in the eighteenth century. As one of the first modern demographic works, Franklin’s study inspired Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) who later offered a bleak vision of the future where the world’s population would eventually outstrip its food supply. Yet Franklin’s study was in fact optimistic. Despite the doubling of the American population every twenty years, Franklin envisioned many opportunities in the future for his countrymen.
Attached Documents
Perhaps the most interesting feature of Franklin’s essay is his use of social data. Although he agreed that America should remain attached to Britain, he did, however, convince Parliament to alter its policies towards the colonies. In this essay, Franklin outlines the differences between European and American societies and notes and, in the process, points to some general trends for the future of the colonies.
The image is a portrait of Benjamin Franklin.
Questions to Consider
1. According to Franklin, of what type of people does Europe mostly consit? Of what type does America? Why implications does this have?
2. What differences are there between American and European marriages? According to Franklin, what impact will this have?
3. According to Franklin, with whom should Britain primarily trade? Why?
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| Historical Context
Arguably the most important philosopher since Plato, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a Prussian scholar, left a lasting impact on the Romantic and Idealist philosophies of the 19th Century. In response to empiricism, Kant developed a complex system based on transcendental idealism which asserted that human beings have innate properties within their minds in order to make sense of the raw data delivered by the senses. Born and residing most of his life in the Prussian town of Königsberg (now the Russian town of Kaliningrad), Kant published his most important work in 1781, “the Critique of Pure Reason,” one of the most important books in the history of Western philosophy. Other works produced lasting contributions to metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics.
Attached Documents
In this document, Kant sets out to define what exactly the Enlightenment was.
The image is a portrait of Immanuel Kant.
Questions to Consider
1. According to Kant, what is “self-incurred tutelage”? What are the reasons why most remain in this state?
2. What is the motto of the Enlightenment?
3. What is necessary first before the public can reach Enlightenment? What prevents this?
4. Does Kant characterize his age as “an age of Enlightenment?” Why or why not?
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| Historical Context
As one of the most pivotal developments in the western intellectual tradition, the Scientific Revolution, lasting roughly between 1500 and 1700, led to a fundamental shift in Western thought and drastically altered previous views of the universe. Beginning in 1543 with Nicolaus Coperinicus’ publication of “On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres,” the movement culminated with the figure of Isaac Newton whose use of the experimental method undermined previous notions in physics and astronomy. Consequently, a modern scientific world-view emerged as a popular among the educated in the Western world. Indeed, atheism, once unknown to Medieval Christian Europe, became ever more popular as traditional religion came to be seen as mere superstition. Nevertheless, most of the major figures of the movement were quite religious and saw their scientific contribution as proving the existence of God rather than undermining it.
Attached Documents
As America’s most versatile thinker, Benjamin Franklin was deeply interested in scientific inquiry. In the process, he invented the lightning rod, the glass harmonica, the Franklin stove, and bifocal glasses. In 1743, Franklin established the American Philosophical Society to foster scientific discovery and the dissemination of ideas. These two letters, written from France in 1783, at a time when Franklin was serving with the American diplomatic mission, deal with a balloon experiment in the winter of 1783-84. These documents are indicative of Franklin’s scientific curiosity and versatility as a thinker.
Questions to Consider
1. How did those involved with the experiment keep the balloon weighed down?
2. How high did the balloon ascend? When did Franklin finally learn of the experiment’s success?
3. According to Franklin, how might balloons be used for military purposes?
4. What allows a balloon to rise? According to Franklin, what discovery might replace this?
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| Historical Context
Adam Smith (1723-1790), a Scottish moral philosopher, was the leading pioneer in the science of political economics and the major influence on the development of a theory of capitalism. At a young age, Smith became passionate about liberty, reason and free speech. He studied moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow and was a distinguished student. In 1751, he joined the faculty at the University of Glasgow as a professor of moral philosophy. In 1759, Smith published “The Theory of Moral Sentiments,” which attempted to explain human feelings of approval or disapproval. The book was a success and caught the attention of David Hume, the leading British philosopher of the day. The two began a life-long correspondence. Although he was a prodigious writer, Smith had almost all of his manuscripts destroyed shortly before his death.
Attached Documents
Published in 1776, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) was unquestionably Smith’s most lasting contribution to western thought and the Enlightenment. The work was one of the first attempts to thoroughly examine the development of European industry and commerce. Smith made a convincing attack on the doctrine of mercantilism, which prevailed among European economists for the last century. Mercantilism was a theory that argued that large reserves of money were vital for a nation’s economic prosperity. Yet Smith argued that expanding trade and opening new markets for a nation’s surplus goods would actually produce more wealth and economic success than mercantilist practices. Furthermore, Smith rejected his contemporaries’ emphasis on land-ownership and asserted instead that labor was most important and that the division of labor would greatly increase both efficiency and production. Perhaps most important was his notion of the “invisible hand,” a theory that the basic market-mechanisms of supply and demand regulate the economy and that government interference was detrimental to economic success. This became a lasting argument in favor of free trade, capitalism, and libertarianism.
The image is a portrait of Adam Smith.
Questions to Consider
1. What is the division of labor? How does it function? Why is it so important for economic productivity?
2. Smith stated that “It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest.” What does he mean? What effect does “self interest” have on the development of a healthy economy?
3. According to Smith, what has lead to the use of money for exchange?
4. How does Smith calculate the “real price” of a commodity?
5. How does supply and demand affect the real price of a commodity? When supply is high, what happens to the price of a good? When it is low?
6. Why are decent wages important to the economic wellbeing of a nation?
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| Historical Context
Unquestionably, the epoch’s most important pamphleteer was Thomas Paine (1737-1809), a revolutionary, radical intellectual, and deist. Paine’s works drastically changed the political and social climate of the 18th century and came to be regarded as the intellectual ancestor of liberals, libertarians, progressives and radicals around the world. Born in Thetford, England, Paine rose from humble beginnings to become the foremost political figure of his time. After failing out of school, he worked as an excise (tax) officer in England. In 1772, he published “The Case of the Officers of Excise,” which lobbied Parliament for better pay and working conditions for his colleagues. Two years later, Paine met Benjamin Franklin by chance in London. Shortly afterwards, Franklin convinced Paine to emigrate to America. In Philadelphia, he continued to write and publish a variety of works and befriended many leading Americans of the day. During the Revolution, Paine joined the Continental Army. When the fortunes of the army were at their bleakest, his inspirational tract The Crisis galvanized the army to continue fighting. Indeed, the pamphlet became so popular that a higher percentage of the American population read it than today watch the Super bowl.
After America’s victory and the establishment of the United States, Paine returned to England and continued his agitation for reform. In response to English criticism of the French Revolution, Paine wrote “The Rights of Man” (1791-92). Consequently, English authorities branded him an outlaw for his anti-monarchist views and forced him to flee for France. There, he joined revolution and served in the French National Convention. By 1793, however, the French revolutionaries arrested him for not endorsing the execution of Louis XVI. During his imprisonment, he wrote and distributed the first part “The Age of Reason” which advocated deism and harshly criticized Christianity. “All national institutions of churches,” he declared “whether Jewish, Christian or Turkish, appear to me no other than human inventions, set up to terrify and enslave mankind, and monopolize power and profit.” On the intervention of James Monroe, the then U.S. Minister to France, Paine released in 1794 and he returned to the United States. Due to his controversial views especially on religion, Paine was chided by the public and abandoned by his former American friends. In 1809, he died at the age of 72.
In his life, Paine eschewed personal power or wealth and devoted himself entirely to championing the rights of the common man. His deep-rooted belief in dignity and rights of men everywhere challenged the traditional authority and dogma of king and church and proved to be a catalyst for revolutions around the world. As an author, Paine's ability to present complex ideas in clear and concise form, as opposed to the more philosophical approaches of his Enlightenment contemporaries in Europe, allowed his writings to be widely disseminated across the a broad social strata. Today, Paine is widely regarded as a visionary political thinker, whose ideas are the ideological bedrock of modern democracy. Yet in his own time, his contemporaries already acknowledged his impact. "I know not," John Adams wrote in 1806, "whether any man in the world has had more influence on its inhabitants or affairs for the last thirty years than Thomas Paine."
Attached Documents
In terms of its influence on American history, Paine’s pamphlet “Common Sense” is unquestionably the most noteworthy. Selling 150,000 copies in the first year of its publication, the pamphlet demanded total separation from Britain and establishment of a strong federal union. It was also a powerful attack on the idea of monarchy and hereditary privilege. “Common Sense” convinced many colonists, including George Washington and John Adams, support the independence movement and join the revolution.
The image is a portrait of Thomas Paine.
Questions to Consider
1. What analogy does Paine use to argue why America, after its tutelage under England, can now survive on its own?
2. According to Paine, who has fled from Europe to the New World?
3. What “natural rights” does Paine claim for the colonists?
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