| The Rise of Fascism and Prelude to War (1928-1942) |
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Sections:- Benitio Mussolini: "What is Fascism?" (1932)
- The Consul at Berlin to the Chief of the Division of Western European Affairs
- Nuremberg Laws (1935)
- Roosevelt Speaks Out Against Jewish Persecution
- Appeal to the League of Nations (Hailie Selassie, June 1936)
- Hossbach Memorandum (November 10, 1937)
- World Defense Spending
- Hitler's Defiance of the Western Powers
- Axis Expansion
- The Trinity of Aggression
- Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928
- Message to the Nations of the World (May 16, 1933)
- The Nye Report (February 24, 1936)
- "Is Neutrality Possible?" By Gerald Nye
- Neutrality Act (August 31, 1935)
- Address on Armistice Day (1935)
- Address by President Roosevelt to Congress (January 3, 1936)
- "Quarantine" Speech (October 5, 1937)
- Roosevelt Urges Congress to Amend the Neutrality Laws
- Isolationism
- America First Party
- New York Nazi Rally
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| Historical Context
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) over the course of his lifetime went from Socialism - he was editor of Avanti, a socialist newspaper - to the leadership of a new political movement called "fascism" [after "fasces", the symbol of bound sticks used a totem of power in ancient Rome]. Mussolini came to power after the "March on Rome" in 1922, and was appointed Prime Minister of Italy by King Victor Emmanuel. In 1932 Mussolini wrote entry for the Italian Encyclopedia on the definition of fascism.
Attached Document
In the attached excerpt, Mussolini explains what fascism means to him. A photograph of the Italian leader is included below. Questions to Consider
1. What does Mussolini uphold as the highest ideals of Fascism? Why?
2.Why does Mussolini reject democracy?
3.What is the function of the state according to Mussolini? |
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| Historical Context
Nazism's growth in the late 1920s was due more to careful organization and the ravages of the Great Depression than to its anti-Semitic platform. But before they took power in 1933, the Nazis had given ample warning of how they would treat Germany's Jews. After Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany, the German government was steadily converted into an instrument dedicated to carrying out his policies.
Attached Document
In the attached letter (September 15, 1934), Raymond H. Geist, the U.S. consul in Berlin, describes the disturbing rise of Nazism in Germany, the militarization of the youth, and the ominous sign of German rearmament. The second document is an image of Adolf Hitler. the third document is a photograph from a Nazi rally at Nuremberg. Questions to consider
1.How does Geist characterize German rearmament? What does implications does he foresee?
2.How, according to Geist, is the German youth being inculcated with Nazi and militaristic ideals? |
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| Historical Context
During the annual Nazi rally in Nuremberg, Hitler proclaimed the so-called “Nuremberg Laws,” which severely restricted the freedoms of German Jews. Of interest, is the similarity between these laws as the Jim Crow Laws passed in the United States following the Compromise of 1877. For Hitler, the Jim Crow Laws provided a model by which he could also segregate as sizeable minority population.
Attached Document
The first attached document is a transcript of the Nuremberg Laws. The first photograph below is a man being measured by an Aryan caliper, to determine if his nose is too wide to be German. The second photograph is of a woman sitting on a Jew's Only bench. The final photograph is denoting a Jewish owned store. Questions to Consider
1. How did the Nazis limit relations between Germans and Jews?
2. How did the Nazis define a German “citizen”?
3. Consider the similarities between the Jim Crow Laws and the Nuremburg Laws. |
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| Historical Context
On 7 November 1938 Ernst von Rath, a German embassy official in Paris was shot by a 17-year-old Polish Jew in response to the mistreatment of his parents and the thousands of other Polish Jews in Germany. Goebbels, hoping to get back into Hitler's good graces after a scandalous affair with a Czech film star, ensured that the German press waxed indignant over the shooting. This nationwide press campaign helped stir up trouble and on 8-9 November Jewish homes, businesses and synagogues were attacked by gangs of Nazis, acting largely on their own initiative and without specific instructions from above. These events spurred the violence on 9-10 November, The Night of Broken Glass, orchestrated by Party activists was much greater than the previous night. In some places, Nazi members acted alone. But elsewhere, ordinary Germans joined in the pogrom and the looting which accompanied it. Overnight close to 8,000 Jewish businesses were destroyed, 200 synagogues burned, hundreds of Jews beaten up and over 90 killed. Neither the fire brigade nor the police intervened to prevent the violence and destruction. That night and over the next few days some 30,000 Jewish men were herded into concentration camps. Most were later released but only in exchange for written promises to leave Germany.
Attached Document
In the attached video (2:19), FDR denounces the Nazi pogrom. A photograph of the burning synagogue in Siegen, Germany is also included. Question to Consider
1. With what other regime does Roosevelt compare Nazi Germany? |
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| Historical Context
On October 3, 1935, Mussolini launched an invasion of Ethiopia, Emperor Hailie Selassie made a passionate appeal to the League of Nations for international assistance. The League’s inability to assist Ethiopia manifested its diplomatic impotence and opened the door for further Axis expansion.
Attached Document
Ethiopia's Hailie Selassie's plea to the League of Nations is included in section. The second document is the cover of Time magazine featuring Hailie Selassie. Questions to Consider
1.What is Haile Selassie asking from the League? Why?
2. What is the short-term danger if the League abandons Ethiopia? What is the Long-term danger? |
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| Historical Context
Since the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Hitler had frequently declared that he wanted a fair revision of the Versailles Treaty. Hitler exploited international opinion, which, in the mid-1930s, believed that the treaty had unfairly treated Germany. Above all, Hitler proclaimed his peaceful intentions of gaining for Germany equal treatment in international affairs. In 1937, however, Hitler secretly met with his top generals in Berlin to discuss the rapid German rearmament, a violation of Versailles, and his plans to expand the Reich at the expense of Germany’s neighbors.
Attached Document
The minutes of the Hossbach meeting are included in this section. An image of the increasingly dominate German troops also follows below. Questions to consider
1. What did Hitler identify as Germany’s chief problem?
2. Why did Hitler reject autarky, participation in the world economy and overseas colonies as means to solve this problem?
3. Why was it important for Hitler to attack before 1943-1945? |
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| Provided below is a graph outlining the rapid build up of the German military compared to the other great powers.
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| | Found below is a cartoon by artist David Lowe's that depicts the sentiment of the time. |
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| | The following maps outline the expansion of the Axis Powers. |
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| Historical Context
Long before the United States entered the war, the Axis powers had begun a series of expansionist wars throughout Asia, Africa and Europe. Japan, the first of the Axis to begin an aggressive war, launched attacks against Manchuria, China in 1931. Italy followed in 1935 with an invasion of Ethiopia. Germany, meanwhile, began a series of "bloodless" conquests in 1936 by reoccupying the Rhineland, which had been demilitarized after World War II. Austria and the Czech Republic soon followed. Japan expanded its war into mainland China soon thereafter. By 1939, the Western Powers' policy of appeasement had clearly failed and many agitated for a stronger response to further Axis encroachments on world peace. Thus, war became almost inevitable as Hitler turned his ambitions toward Poland.
Attached Document
The attached video (6:38) sketches the course of Axis Expansion during the 1930's.
Questions to Consider
1. According to video, what was the first act of Japanese aggression?
2. Summarize Hitler’s bloodless conquests.
3. In what conflict did Mussolini & Hitler intervene? Which dictator intervened against them?
4. What was Hitler’s goal at the Munich Conference? Afterwards, what was Hitler’s response? What did he later do to violate the agreement?
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| Historical Context
Named after the American secretary of state, Frank B. Kellogg, and French Foreign minister Aristide Briand, who both drafted the pact, the Kellogg-Briand Treaty was an agreement that renounced war as a means of national policy. As a practical matter, the Kellogg-Briand Pact did not live up to its aim of ending war, and in this sense it made no immediate contribution to international peace and proved to be ineffective in the years to come. It did, however, help to formulate later international law especially notions of “crimes against peace.”
Attached Document
The text of the Kellogg-Briand Pact is included below, along with a photograph of Coolidge signing the agreement. Questions to Consider
1. What was the overall goal of the agreement?
2. What mechanism of enforcement was included in the agreement to ensure its success? |
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| Historical Context
To solve the global financial crisis, Franklin Roosevelt urges economic cooperation and an international agreement for disarmament.
Attached Document
The text of Roosevelt's message is included here.
Questions to Consider
1. What recommendations does Roosevelt offer in the solving the economic crisis? Why would these help?
2. According to Roosevelt, why do nations retain offensive weapons? How should disarmament proceed? |
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| Historical Context
In 1934 Senator Nye headed an investigation of the munitions industry. Once again, he sniffed out corruption and created headlines by making connections between the wartime profits of the banking and munitions industries and America's involvement in World War I. Many Americans felt betrayed: perhaps the war hadn't been an epic battle between the forces of good (democracy) and evil (autocracy). This investigation of these "merchants of death" helped to bolster sentiments for isolationism.
Attached Document
The findings of the committee are included below. A photograph of committee members is also included. Questions to Consider
1. According to the Nye report, what is the relationship between munitions manufacturers and the U.S. government? What is the relationship between the munitions manufactures and foreign governments?
2. How does the Nye report undermine previous notions about American involvement in World War One?
3. Why might the Nye report reinforce isolationist sentiment in the United States? |
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| Historical Context
During the 1930's, most Americans were content to focus on American economic troubles and steer clear of European entanglements. Gerald Nye, a senator from North Dakota, represented this strong isolationist trend when he argued persuasively against American engagement in European affairs.
Attached Document
The attached document is an essay by Gerald Nye entitled "Is Neutrality Possible".
Questions to Consider
1. According to Nye, what social benefits does the United States sacrifice by spending funds on the military? What are the possible consequences of this?
2. Consider Nye’s ideas about a war referendum, fascism in South America and popular defense. How realistic do they seem?
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| Historical Context
In response to increased tension in international affairs, the United States adopted the Neutrality Act of 1935 which forbade the sale of munitions to belligerents or the boarding of belligerent vessels by U.S. citizens.
Attached Document
The text of the Neutrality Act is included here. The second and third documents are political cartoons showing the United States' position on war in Europe. Questions to Consider
1. What lessons from the First World War does the Neutrality Act of 1935 seem to reflect?
2. Although the act forbade the sale of munitions, what other material was not listed in the document that might be beneficial to nations at war?
3. Compare the messages of the two political cartoons. How do they encapsulate the isolationist & interventionist positions? |
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| Historical Context
On the anniversary of the end of World War One in 1936, the threat of the United States again going to war loomed on the horizon.
Attached Document
In the attached speech, in contrast to earlier orations, Roosevelt’s 1936 address is notable for its markedly pessimistic outlook on foreign affairs and demonstrates a growing awareness of the escalating tensions abroad.
Questions to Consider
1. According to Roosevelt, what distinguishes the Western Hemisphere from the rest of the world?
2. Roosevelt asserts that the majority of the world’s population wants peace even in aggressor states. What then prevents nations from disarming and from implementing steps towards peace?
3. What is the general policy of the United States as outlined by Roosevelt? |
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| Historical Context
As the international crisis continued to escalate, American leaders took an increasingly dim look on the prospects for peace. Consequently, Roosevelt addressed Congress concerning global affairs.
Roosevelt’s 1936 address to Congress is notable for its markedly pessimistic outlook on foreign affairs and demonstrates a growing awareness of the escalating tensions abroad.
Attached Document
Included in this section is the text of Roosevelt's speech
Questions to consider
1. According to Roosevelt, what distinguishes the Western Hemisphere from the rest of the world?
2. Roosevelt asserts that the majority of the world’s population wants peace even in aggressor states. What then prevents nations from disarming and from implementing steps towards peace?
3. What is the general policy of the United States as outlined by Roosevelt? |
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| Historical Context
In this speech, Roosevelt outlines the growing threat of war and the problem of neutrality. Roosevelt succeeds in cutting a middle point between isolationism and open support for beleaguered states. In doing so, he demonstrates U.S. commitment to international law.
Attached Document
Included here is the text of Roosevelt's speech.
Questions to Consider
1. Why is neutrality ineffective against the growing threat from abroad? What should be done instead?
2. How does Roosevelt diagnose the international crisis?
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| Historical Context
By the late 1930's, it was increasingly evident that Europe was marching toward another conflict. Contrary to isolationist sentiment that wished to avoid another European imbroglio, Roosevelt clearly wished to assist the democratic allies against Hitler.
Attached Document
In this video (2:56), he urges Congress to amend the neutrality legislation.
Questions to Consider
1. What area of the Neutrality Acts does Roosevelt specifically target for amendment? Why?
2. What response does Roosevelt give to those critics who claim that revision would lead to war?
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| Depicting the United States as pulled in different directions by isolationist and interventionist sentiments, this political cartoon illustrates the conundrum plaguing U.S. foreign policy in the late 1930's.
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| Historical Context
After visiting Germany several times during the late 1930's, Charles Lindbergh, the first person to fly non-stop across the Atlantic, became convinced of the inevitability of a Nazi victory. Consequently, he joined the America First Committee and spoke out against American involvement in Europe. After a shocking string of Germany victories, many Americans, though sympathizing with Britain, concluded that Hitler was unstoppable. On September 11, 1941, Lindbergh delivered a ant-war speech in Des Moines, IA in which he targeted British propaganda, Jews and the Roosevelt administration for pushing American to the brink of war. Although he made it clear that he opposed the Nazi persecution of the Jews, Lindbergh succeeded in outraging the public with his claim that Jewish control of the media was a primary cause of the increased agitation towards war.
Attached Documents
In the first attached speech, delivered on April 23, 1941, Lindbergh makes his case against intervention on behalf of Britain. The second document below is the text of the speech presented on September 11, 1941. The third document is a promotional poster for the America First Party. The fourth and fifth documents are political cartoons by Dr. Seuss, depicting Lindberg as foolish. Questions to Consider
Considering the first speech below:
1. How strong is Lindbergh's claim that America was unprepared for war? What factors did he neglect in surmising American strength?
2. Do you agree with Lindbergh's argument that a nation should only go to war if it has an obvious chance for victory?
3. Should, as Lindbergh claims, the majority determine whether the U.S. enters a war or not? Or should duly elected politicians have the ultimate say?
4. How accurate is Lindbergh's argument that the blame for the fall of democracies in Europe should rest with the interventionists and not with the Axis powers?
5. How realistic is Lindbergh's reliance on the foreign-policy traditions of the Monroe Doctrine in the modern world? What factors might make the Monroe Doctrine outdated by this time?
Considering the second speech below:
6. How accurately does Lindbergh assess Britain's military situation? What other major power was at war against Hitler by this time?
7. What is Lindbergh's opinion about the strength of propaganda?
8. Why, according to Lindbergh, should Jewish-Americans oppose the war?
9. How, according to Lindbergh, do Jewish-Americans influence U.S. public opinion?
10. What, according to Lindbergh, is Roosevelt's motivation for bringing the United States into the conflict?
11. How has the Roosevelt administration succeeded in undermining the support for isolation? |
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| | The following video shows an American Nazi rally at Madison Square Garden in New York in 1942. Questions to Consider
1. Given the international situation, should authorities permit American-Nazis to demonstrate? |
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