| Diplomatic Strategies & Policies of Eisenhower and Kennedy (1953-1963) |
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Sections:- Eisenhower's First Inaugural Address (Jan. 20, 1953)
- Eisenhower's Plan for Global Disarmament
- Eisenhower's "Atoms for Peace" Speech to the U.N. (Dec. 8, 1953)
- Geneva Conference
- Hungarian Revolt
- Nixon in Moscow
- U-2 Spy Plane Crisis
- Eisenhower's Farewell Address (January 17, 1961)
- New Moon
- Russians in Space
- Atlas in Orbit
- Pioneer IV
- Chimps in Space
- JFK & the Space Program
- Space Launches
- JFK Acceptance of the Democratic Nomination (July 15, 1960)
- JFK's Inaugural Speech (Jan. 20, 1961)
- JFK Campaigns for Medicare
- Kennedy & the Peace Corps.
- JFK Establishes the Peace Corps (March 1, 1961)
- Kennedy's Speech in Berlin (June 26, 1963)
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| Historical Context
In his inaugural address, President Eisenhower contrasts the abiding faith and founding principles of the United States against those of the USSR. Also he proposes bold principles by which American conduct should be guided.
Attached Document
Included in this section is the text of Eisenhower's First Inaugural Address.
Questions to Consider
1. According to Eisenhower, what aspect of American life distinguishes the United States from the USSR?
2. What, according to Eisenhower, is the Cold War a battle between?
3. How will the United States act towards other countries?
4. What is the purpose of the United Nations and how will the U.S. support it?
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| Historical Context
With the successful detonation of a Soviet atomic bomb in 1949, an escalating nuclear arms race threatened the world with Armageddon.
Attached Document
This video (2:45) shows Eisenhower's appeal for peace to the United Nations. The second resource is a Life Magazine featuring Eisenhower addressing the United Nations on the cover.
Questions to Consider
1. What are the five elements outlined by Eisenhower? Which region do these elements pertain?
2. Eisenhower declares that the United States is willing to submit to international inspection, provided what?
3. What is the purpose of the United Nations? How is abused?
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| Historical Context
Attached Document
Included here is Eisenhower's speech entitled "Atoms for Peace." This U.N. address outlines the growing threat of nuclear war and Eisenhower's proposal for international cooperation in the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes.
Questions to Consider
1. According to Eisenhower, what is the destructive potential of a modern atomic bomb?
2. How destructive is the current American arsenal compared compared with the arsenals of World War II?
3. What does Eisenhower expect from negotiations with the USSR?
4. What is the Atomic Energy Commission? What, according to Eisenhower, should be its purpose? Under whose jurisdiction should it be placed?
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| Historical Context
Geneva Summit The fact that a summit meeting was finally taking place after 10 years- the last one had been at Potsdam- seemed to indicate a significant relaxation of East-West tensions. However, very little of real substance occurred at the conference. The major surprise was Eisenhower's proposal for "open skies," which entailed allowing each side to send intelligence-gathering aircraft over the other's territories, virtually unhindered. The summit ended without any major agreements.
Attached Document
In this video (1:58), Britain, the United States, France, and the Soviet Union discuss international affairs at the Four Power Summit in Geneva, Switzerland. A photograph of Eisenhower & Khrushchev is also included.
Questions to Consider
1. Who is represented at the conference?
2. What are the key issues discussed at the conference?
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| Historical Context
Elected Premier of the Soviet Union in 1956, Khrushchev began a “de-Stalinization" program throughout the Eastern bloc. Liberalization, however, had unforeseen consequences. In Hungary, a group of young freedom fighters attempted to liberate their country from the Soviet yolk. In the process, they hoped to gain the support of the United States. Nevertheless, Washington did not intervene and the revolt was crushed. Consequently, Cold War boundaries were reaffirmed.
Attached Document
The attached video (:57) depicts the Hungarian revolt of 1956. The second resource is the Time Magazine cover featuring the Hungarian Freedom Fighter. The second image is an original photo of Hungarians beside the toppled statue of Stalin. The third image is an original photo of Hungarians atop a Soviet Tank.
Questions to Consider
1. Where do the resistance fighters flee? What eventually blocks the road to safety?
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| Historical Context
Attached Document
The attached video (2:28) shows the meeting of Nixon & Khrushchev at the American exhibition in Moscow. In it, the heated "Kitchen Debate" between Khrushchev & Nixon is shown. In it, Khrushchev vows the the USSR will "bury" the United States. The photograph shows Nixon & Khrushchev beside an exhibit on a "typical" American home.
Questions to Consider
1. What is the occasion of Nixon’s visit to Moscow? What counterpart is happening in New York?
2. What does Khrushchev promise that Communism will eventually do vis-à-vis the West?
3. What does Nixon want from the meeting with Khrushchev?
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| Historical Context
The U-2 Crisis of 1960 occurred when an American U-2 spy plane flown by Gary Powers was shot down over the Soviet Union. The high-altitude plane was destroyed by a Soviet surface-to-air missile on May 1, 1960. In order to conceal the purpose of the plane, NASA issued a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had "gone missing" north of Turkey. The press release speculated that the pilot might have fallen unconscious while the autopilot was still engaged, even claiming that "the pilot reported over the emergency frequency that he was experiencing oxygen difficulties." To bolster this, a U-2 plane was quickly painted in NASA colors and shown to the media.
After hearing this, Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev announced to the Supreme Soviet (and hence the world) that a spy plane had been shot down, whereupon the U.S. issued a statement claiming that it was a "weather research aircraft." The U.S. denied the true purpose of the plane, but were eventually forced to admit it when the U.S.S.R produced the living pilot and the largely intact plane to corroborate their claim of being spied on aerially. '"I must tell you a secret,” Khrushchev declared, “When I made my first report I deliberately did not say that the pilot was alive and well... and now just look how many silly things the Americans have said."' The incident worsened East-West relations during the Cold War and was a great embarrassment for the United States. The Paris Summit between Eisenhower and Khrushchev collapsed. Another result of the crisis was that the US spy satellite project was accelerated.
Attached Documents
In the first attached video (2:08), the crisis is explained. In the second (:58), Khrushchev denounces the United States. The first photo shows the U-2 in flight. The second shows the wreckage of Power's plane. The third shows Khrushchev examining the wreckage of Power's plane. The fourth shows Power's Moscow trial.
Questions to Consider
1. How do the Soviets respond to the spy plane episode?
2. What, according to video, is Khrushchev's real aim?
3. What does Eisenhower ask? How did Khrushchev respond?
4. In the second video, what evidence does Khrushchev have against the U.S.?
5. What is the American response? How does the United States justify its spy program?
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| Historical Context
In his final address as President, Eisenhower alerts the American public to the danger of a growing "military-industrial complex" and "a scientific-technological elite." The military-industrial complex refers to an iron triangle that is argued to exist among weapons makers & military contractors (industry), The Pentagon (military), and the United States government. A photograph of Eisenhower giving the speech is also included.
Attached Document
Included in this section is the text of Eisenhower's Farewell Address.
Questions to Consider
1. How does Eisenhower advise balance as a virtue for public welfare?
2. According to Eisenhower, how has the military establishment changed since World War II?
3. What dangers does the military-industrial complex pose to the American way of life?
4. How has technological progress changed? How might this effect American life?
5. According to Eisenhower, how should we protect future generations?
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The '''Space Race ''' was an informal competition between the United States and the Soviet Union that lasted roughly from 1957 to 1975. It involved the parallel efforts by each of those countries to explore space with artificial satellites, to send humans into space, and to land people on the Moon. The Space Race effectively began after the Soviet launch of Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957.
Attached Document
The attached video (:45) depicts the Soviet launch of the Sputnik satellite. The first image is a photograph of Sputnik. The second image shows a Russian stamp commemorating the launch.
Questions to Consider
1. How large is the Soviet satellite?
2. What concerns about the Cold War might Sputnik have aroused in the United States?
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Attached Document
In the attached video (:50), Soviet space tests and their use of dogs in space are shown.
Questions to Consider
1. What animals have the Soviets used in their space program?
2. What is Soviet goal?
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Attached Document
The attached video (3:38) shows the launching of the American Atlas satelite.
Questions to Consider
1. What missiles are among the largest at Cape Canveral?
2. What happened to the first Atlas launch?
3. How many people actually know the course of the Atlas missile?
4. What can the Atlas do?
5. What was the finale of the launch?
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Attached Document
The attached video (2:00) depicts the launching of the Pioneer IV Satellite which was designed as a prelude to a moon landing. A photograph of the satellite is also included.
Questions to Consider
1. What is destination of the satellite?
2. How many rocket stages are there?
3. What has the satellite detected?
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Attached Document
The attached video (1:39) shows the use of a chimp in space as a prelude to putting a human in space.
Questions to Consider
1. Why is the use of a chimp important?
2. What happened to force an early end to the experiment?
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Attached Document
In the attached video (2:46), Kennedy tours the various facilities of the American space program. The photo shows Kennedy inspecting a Mercury space capsule.
Questions to Consider
1. What space installations does Kennedy visit?
2. What is the name of the rocket program that is a preliminary to the lunar landing?
3. Why, according to Kennedy, is the space program important?
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| Historical Context
This chart shows the number of space launches per year throughout the Cold War.
Question to Consider
1. In what year did American launches sharpely decline? Why do you think they declined?
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| Historical Context
In his acceptance of the democratic nomination, Kennedy outlines the differences between the Republican and Democrat visions for America.
Attached Document
The audio clip (21:32) presents the speech in its entirety. A transcript of Kennedy's address to the Democratic National Convention is also included. The image is of Kennedy's election promotional poster.
Questions to Consider
1. What role will religion have in Kennedy's presidency?
2. What domestic issues are important for Kennedy? To whom does this appeal?
3. According to Kennedy, what changes have occurred in the last few years? How should these be addressed?
4. How does the "New Frontier" contrast with the goals of the Republican Party?
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| Historical Context
In his inaugural address, Kennedy defines a new era in American history with new challenges and opportunities.
Attached Document
The attached audio clip (14:00) presents the speech in its entirety and a transcript is included below. A phto of John and Jacqueline Kennedy at the inauguration is also included.
Questions to Consider
1. What charateristics does Kennedy attribute to the current generation?
2. What does Kennedy pledge to America's allies? To new states? To the poor?
3. What is Kennedy's position towards America's enemies?
4. How should the U.S. & the USSR negotiate?
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Attached Document
The first attached video (:33) shows JFK campaigning for Medicare. The second video (:34) shows a recently-elected President Kennedy appealing to Congress on behalf of his Medicare proposal.
Questions to Consider
1. What is the basis of the plan according to Kennedy?
2. With what other social legislation does Kennedy compare the Medicare plan?
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Attached Document
The attached video (2:47) explores Kennedy's creation of the Peace Corps.
Questions to Consider
1. How was the Peace Corps proposal accepted by American youth?
2. How does Kennedy see the Peace Corps?
3. Where will the volunteers serve?
4. What is the purpose of the Corps? What, according to Kennedy, is it not? Where does this purpose come from?
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Designed to promote mutual understanding between Americans and the outside world, the Peace Corps was established by Kennedy as a permanent federal agency within the United States Department of State Department. The program was an outgrowth of the Cold War and was conceived as a means by which to oppose Chinese and Soviet influence in the Third World.
Attached Document
The document establishing the Peace Corps is included along with a photograph of Kennedy shaking the hands of new Peace Corps volunteers.
Questions to Consider
1. Who does Kennedy expect to contribute to the Peace Corps?
2. According to Kennedy, what is the goal of the organization? What other goals might it have?
3. What hardship can a member expect? What benefits?
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In this stirring and memorable speech, Kennedy outlined the differences between the Communist and Capitalist blocs. Photo #1 is of the Berlin crowd listening to Kennedy's address. Photo #2 is of Kennedy touring Brandenburg Gate, near the Wall. Photo #3 is of Kennedy's actual notecard used in the speech. Incidentally, Kennedy’s famous “Ich bin ein Berliner” literally translates to "I am a pastry." “Ich bin Berliner” is the correct phrase in German. But most German listeners knew what he intended to say and so enthusiastically applauded his pledge of solidarity with the residents of the divided city.
Attached Document
Included here is both the audio clip (9:21) and the text of Kennedy's speech. The first photo is of the crowd that came to hear Kennedy speak. The second photo shows Kennedy with German officials. The final document is Kennedy's notecard fromt the speech in Berlin.
Questions to Consider
1. Why is Berlin symbolic for the Cold War itself?
2. Although democracy isn't perfect, what, according to Kennedy, has the west never done, which the east has?
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