| Emergence of the Two Party System and Jacksonian Democracy (1825-1860) |
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Sections:- Inaugural Address of John Quincy Adams (March 4, 1825)
- Jackson's Inaugural Address
- A letter of Margaret Bayard Smith to Mrs. Kirkpatrick (March 11th, 1829)
- Andrew Jackson’s First Annual Message to Congress (December 8, 1829)
- Cherokee Nation vs. the State of Georgia (1831)
- Andrew Jackson’s Proclamation of (February 10th, 1831)
- Andrew Jackson’s Veto Message (June 10, 1832)
- Henry Clay’s Message to the Senate on Jackson’s Veto of the Bank Bill (July 10, 1832)
- South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification, (November 24, 1832)
- President Jackson's Proclamation Regarding Nullification, December 10, 1832
- Andrew Jackson’s Fourth Annual Message (December 4th, 1832)
- Anti-Masonic Party
- National Republican Party (1828-1834)
- Election of 1832
- Andrew Jackson’s Farewell Address (March 4, 1837)
- Liberty Party
- Democratic Party
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| Historical Context
The first President who was the son of a President, Adams had served under President Monroe as Secretary of State and with great success. In the political tradition of the time, Adams as Secretary of State was considered the political heir to the Presidency. But the old ways of choosing a President were giving way in 1824 before a demand for greater popular choice.
Within the Republican Party, the only party then in operation, divisions developed. Several factions put up their own candidates for the Presidency. Adams, the candidate of the North, fell behind Gen. Andrew Jackson in both popular and electoral votes, but received more than William H. Crawford and Henry Clay. Since no candidate had a majority of electoral votes, the election was decided among the top three by the House of Representatives. Clay, who favored a program similar to that of Adams, threw his crucial support in the House to Adams.
Once President, Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State. Consequently, Jackson and his angry followers charged that a "corrupt bargain" had taken place and immediately began their campaign to wrest the Presidency from Adams in 1828. Well aware of the hostility towards him in Congress, Adams attempts to reconcile a divided nation by appealing to shared history and values.
Questions to Consider
1. According to Adams, what changes have occurred since the signing of the Constitution?
2. What has caused dissension amongst Americans?
3. What qualities does Adams attribute to both political parties? What has yet to occur between these parties?
4. What is Adams' “political creed?” How does he see the balance between states’ and federal rights?
5. What types of divisions does Adams see as dividing Americans? Which is the more persistant?
6. According to Adams, how do politicians lessen these differences?
7. How has the election made Adams' succession unique? Consequently, what does he ask of Americans?
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| Historical Context
Andrew Jackson and his followers had some very strong beliefs about how a government should run and what it is responsible for. For example, Jacksonians believed in states' rights, the sale of federal lands, and westward expansion. Attached Documents
Andrew Jackson outlines these and many other of his beliefs about government in his two inaugural addresses.
Questions to Consider
1. In what ways did Jackson's Presidential goals differ from term to term, if they did at all?
2. How did Jackson's beliefs affect the decisions he made as President?
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| Historical Context
After the election of 1824, the supporters of Andrew Jackson were bitterly disappointed. He had garnered the most electoral votes, but had been denied the presidency by the House of Representatives.
The Election of 1828 was unique in that nominations were no longer made by Congressional caucuses, but by conventions and the state legislatures. John Quincy Adams was re-nominated by forces then calling themselves the National Republicans. The Democratic Republican (the future Democratic Party) opposition was posed by Jackson and his vice-presidential candidate, John C. Calhoun (who had previously been vice president under Adams). In essence, however, the United States presidential election of 1828 was a rematch between incumbent President Adams and his opponent in 1824 Andrew Jackson.
The campaign was bitter and could be called the first true mud-slinging contest. Adams was accused of misusing public funds. The charges against Jackson were much more malicious. He was accused of murder for executing militia deserters and dueling. In addition, he and his wife were accused of adultery. Rachel was a divorcee'; she and Jackson believed her divorce was finalized before their marriage. The papers were incomplete, however, and she was publicly branded an adulteress by Jackson's political opponents. Mrs. Jackson was humiliated, became ill and died before the inauguration. Jackson believed these attacks caused his wife's death and said, "May God Almighty forgive her murderers as I know she forgave them. I never can."
The election results were a clear victory for Jackson, but were highly sectional in nature. The South, West, and the states of Pennsylvania and New York went for Jackson; New England voted for Adams. The election of 1828 was seminal election in American history. It was the first election which was to be decided by popular vote.
Attached Documents
After his inauguration, Jackson invited his supporters to the White House to celebrate. Unfortunately, his supporters became raucous in their celebration and property was damaged. During the melee, Jackson himself had to be protected from harm. In this letter to a friend, Margaret Bayard Smith describes the events of the inaugural day.
Questions to Consider
1. How does Smith describe the appearance of Jackson and the crowd’s reaction?
2. According to Smith, was there a military presence at the inauguration? Why is this important to her? What comparison does she draw to European ceremony?
3. How did the crowd recognize Jackson? How did they react?
4. How did Jackson leave the Capitol?
5. Once Smith reached the White House, what did she witness? What happened in the White House? What happened to President Jackson? How does Smith react to this? What conclusion does she reach?
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| Historical Context
After the circumstances of his defeat in 1824 in which he won the popular vote but lost the eventual outcome in the House of Representatives, Jackson recommended eliminating the Electoral College in his First Annual Message to Congress. Attached Documents
He also tried to democratize Federal officeholding. Already state machines were being built on patronage, and a New York Senator openly proclaimed "that to the victors belong the spoils. . . . " Jackson also decried officeholders who seemed to enjoy life tenure, he believed Government duties could be "so plain and simple" that offices should rotate among deserving applicants.
Questions to Consider
1. What amendment does Jackson propose to the manner in which the President is elected?
2. Why shouldn’t the Electoral College or the House of Representative decide the outcomes of elections? Who should decide elections?
3. What term limitations would Jackson place on the Presidency?
4. According to Jackson, what tends to happen when an individual is in office too long?
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| Historical Context
The Cherokee people are aboriginal tribes, who at the time of European contact in the 16th century inhabited what is now the Eastern and Southeastern United States. Most were forcibly moved westward to the Ozark Plateau. They were one of the tribes referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes because they developed a complex society that including an impressive writing system.
By the 19th century, the rapidly expanding white population of the United States created friction with Indian tribes located within the borders of the various states. While state governments did not want independent Indian enclaves within state boundaries, Indian tribes did not want to relocate or to give up their distinct identities.
With the Compact of 1802, the state of Georgia gave up its western land claims to the federal government. In exchange, Washington promised to conduct treaties to relocate those Indian tribes living within Georgia, thus giving Georgia control of all land within its borders.
However, the Cherokees, whose ancestral tribal lands overlapped the boundaries of Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Alabama, declined to move. They established a capital in 1825 at New Echota and adopted a written constitution in 1827.
These tensions between Georgia and the Cherokee Nation were brought to a crisis by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia in 1829. Hopeful gold speculators intruded into Cherokee lands, and pressure began to mount on the Georgia government to fulfill the promises of the Compact of 1802.
Attached Documents
When Georgia moved to extend state laws over Cherokee tribal lands in 1830, the matter went to the U.S. Supreme Court. In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), the court ruled that the Cherokees were not a sovereign and independent nation and therefore refused to hear the case. However, in Worcester v. State of Georgia (1832), the Court ruled that Georgia could not impose laws in Cherokee territory, since only the national government (not state governments) had authority in Indian affairs.
President Andrew Jackson has often been quoted as defying the Supreme Court with the words: "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!" Jackson probably never said this, but he was fully committed to the policy of Indian removal. With the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the U.S. Congress had given Jackson authority to negotiate removal treaties, exchanging Indian land in the east for land west of the Mississippi River. Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put pressure on the Cherokees to sign a removal treaty.
This Treaty of New Echota, signed by in 1835, gave Jackson the legal document he needed to remove the First Americans. Ratification of the treaty by the United States Senate sealed the fate of the Cherokee. Among the few who spoke out against the ratification were Daniel Webster and Henry Clay, but it passed by a single vote. The subsequent removal of the Cherokee, known as the “Trail of Tears,” led to the deaths of 2-4,000.
Questions to Consider
1. What is the purpose of the Cherokee address to the court? According to the injunction, what has happened to the Cherokee people?
2. According to the plaintiff in the case, how should the Cherokee people be regarded?
3. How are Indian tribes different than other foreign states?
4. What clause of the Constitution is used by the court to deal with the issue? What does that clause state? How does this apply to Indian tribes?
5. On what grounds does the court reject the Cherokee appeal for help against the state of Georgia?
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| Historical Context
At the end of Jackson’s first term, the President was confronted with the intrusion of illegal speculators in the federal territory of Arkansas. Attached Documents
In this document, Jackson outlines the problem and defines the consequences for those who continue to defy Washington’s authority.
Questions to Consider
1. What prompted Jackson’s proclamation? To which U.S. territory does it pertain?
2. What does Jackson command of those people in the counties of Lafayette, Sevier, or Miller? How does he intend to enforce this injunction?
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| Historical Context
In Jackson’s opinion, the Bank of the United States represented a monopoly. For him, it was a private institution managed by a board of directors with a President, Nicholas Biddle, who exercised too great an influence in the nation's financial affairs. The bank, he declared, was unauthorized by the Constitution, subversive of the rights of the states, and dangerous to the liberties of the people.
Attached Documents
When Jackson vetoed the bill, it appealed to the masses, who felt that the bank was to blame for the Panic of 1819, and Jackson easily won in the United States presidential election, 1832. To Jackson’s supporters, the presidential veto of the bank bill represented a popular assault on established wealth and special privilege. With the election of 1832 won, Jackson proceeded to destroy the Bank of the United States. He quickly withdrew all the national deposit from the Bank of the United States and stored them in "pet banks", small state owned banks.
The effect of Jackson’s banking policies remains a subject of debate. Initially, land sales, canal construction, cotton production, and manufacturing boomed following Jackson’s decision to divert federal funds from the bank. At the same time, however, state debts rose sharply and inflation increased dramatically. Prices climbed 28 percent in just three years. Then in 1837, just after the election of Jackson’s successor Democrat Martin Van Buren, a deep financial depression struck the nation. Cotton prices fell by half. Some argue that Jackson’s bank policy was directly responsible for the Panic of 1837. Others think that factors outside of Jackson’s control were more directly to blame than the former President.
Questions to Consider
1. What powers does Jackson attribute to the Bank of the United States?
2. Who will benefit from the Banks profits? Why does Jackson object to this?
3. What problems does Jackson see with the Bank method of currency transfer? Why does he see this policy as bias?
4. What problems does Jackson see with foreign investment in the Bank of the United States? How would this effect the American economy? What reprocussions could this have in time of war?
5. Why does Jackson reject the constitutionality of the Supreme Court deciding in favor of the Bank?
6. What conflict does Jackson see between the states and the Bank?
7. According to Jackson, Congress overstepped its constitutional role of “purchasing lands.” According to him, how did Congress do this? Do you agree with his reasoning?
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| Historical Context
One of the major political issues of Jackson’s presidency was his war against the Second Bank of the United States. In Jackson’s day, the presidency was much different than it is today. In the early 19th century, the federal government coined only a small supply of hard money and did not print paper money at all. Private commercial banks were the principal sources of circulating currency. Private, state-chartered banks supplied the credit necessary to finance land purchases, business operations, and economic growth. The notes they issued were promises to pay in gold or silver, but they were backed by a limited amount of precious metal and they fluctuated greatly in value.
In an effort to control these notes issued by local state banks, the federal government chartered the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. Although the Bank of the U.S. could discipline speculative private banks by demanding payment in gold or silver, it quickly became unpopular. Many people saw it as the cause of the Panic of 1819. Others disliked its political influence. Workers and small-business owners blamed it for economic problems and loan restrictions. Private banks resented its privileged position in the banking industry.
In 1832, Jackson’s opponents like Henry Clay and Daniel Webster used the issue of rechartering the bank as to polarize public opinion before the election. Although the bank’s charter did not expire until 1836, Clay and Webster wanted to force Jackson to take a clear pro-bank or anti-bank position. Their goal was to force to him either to sign the bill for recharter, alienating voters hostile to the bank, or veto it, antagonizing conservative voters who favored a sound banking system.
Attached Documents
In this document, Henry Clay, the emerging leader of the National Republicans (later the Whig Party), criticizes Jackson’s veto and attempts to expose inconsistencies in the President’s argument.
Questions to Consider
1. How many times was the veto used during the Madison Administration? How many times during the Adams Administration? How many times has Jackson used the veto?
2. What is the status of the veto in England?
3. How has Jackson encouraged the issue of the Bank of America to be considered by Congress? After Congress considered the issue, how did he then react?
4. Although Jackson points to the Congresses of 1811 and 1815 as support against the Bank, why does Clay reject this reasoning?
5. What event changed Clay’s opinion about the necessity of the Bank?
6. In regard to Western settlers, what is Jackson’s position on their borrowed money? Why does Clay also reject this?
7. Before the Bank was established, how was currency transferred to the West?
8. According to Clay, what are the consequences for the West if the Bank is abolished?
9. Why does Clay reject Jackson’s attempt at gaining executive inititiative for legislation?
10. What is the danger of politicians adhering to the Constitution only as they understand it?
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| Historical Context
Towards the end of his first term, Jackson was confronted with the ''Nullification Crisis.'' The crisis was precipitated by protective Tariff of 1828 (also called the "Tariff of Abominations"). The issue incited a debate over states' rights that ultimately threatened violent hostilities between South Carolina and the federal government, and the dissolution of the Union. The tariff made imported manufactured goods, previously cheaper, more expensive than those made in the North. Business and farming interests in the state had hoped that Jackson would use his presidential power to modify tariff laws they had long opposed. In their view, all the benefits of protection were going to Northern manufacturers and while the country as a whole grew richer, South Carolina grew poorer, with its planters bearing the burden of higher prices.
Attached Documents
Despite South Carolina's protests, Congress passed another protective tariff in 1832. Though milder than that of 1828, southerners were disappointed because the tariff failed to moderate the protective barriers erected in earlier legislation. Consequently, South Carolina endorsed the states' rights principle of "nullification," which was enunciated by John C. Calhoun, Jackson's vice president until 1832. The legislature also passed laws to enforce the ordinance, including authorization for raising a military force and appropriations for arms. A clash was therefore set between the federal government and the state of South Carolina.
Questions to Consider
1. What basis does the South Carolina legislature use for rejecting the federal tariff bill?
2. What is required of all state officials in South Carolina to ensure the protection of the resolution?
3. In regard to a possible confrontation with federal authorities, what message does the South Carolina legislature declare?
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| Attached Documents
Angered, Jackson immediately offered his thought that nullification was tantamount to treason and quickly dispatched ships to Charleston harbor and began strengthening federal fortifications there. He also threatened in return to go to South Carolina and hang any man who refused to obey the law. On December 10, 1832, President Andrew Jackson issued a proclamation to the people of South Carolina that disputed a states' right to nullify a federal law. After Jackson issued his proclamation, Congress passed the Force Act that authorized the use of military force against any state that resisted the tariff acts.
The crisis worsened until 1833 when Henry Clay again took up his role as the Great Compromiser. On the same day the Force Bill passed, he secured passage of the Tariff of 1833. This latter measure provided for the gradual reduction of the tariff over 10 years down to the level which had existed in 1816. This measure helped to preserve the supremacy of the Federal government over the states and would be only one precursor to the developing conflict between the northern and southern United States over economics and slavery.
Although none of the southern states backed South Carolina during the crisis, many southerners declared their sympathies to be with the people of South Carolina. Thus, in many ways, the conflict helped enforce the idea of secession which ultimately led to the Civil War. As the Unionist, James Petigru, wrote at the time, "Nullification has done its work. It has prepared the minds of men for a separation of the states - and when the question is moved again it will be distinctly union or disunion." In 1860, when politics at the Federal level became disagreeable to many in the south, South Carolina was the first state to secede from the Union.
Questions to Consider
1. According to Jackson, what position has South Carolina taken toward the tariff bill?
2. What do the South Carolina authorities pledge to do if the Federal government decides to force the state to comply with the tariff?
3. According to Jackson, what reasons do the South Carolina authorities use to justify their refutation of the tariff bill?
4. According to the Constitution, what are the two channels for appealing an unconstitutional act? How has South Carolina obstructed these two usual channels?
5. What is the possible consequence of a state veto upon acts of Congress?
6. According to Jackson, how does the South Carolina ordinance “repeal” the judicial functions of the Constitution?
7. How does Jackson view the nature of representation in Congress? How does this differ from basic state representation? For a representative, what is the highest authority?
8. Why does the United States’ government equate to an actual government and not merely a league or confederation?
9. How does Jackson refute a state’s right of secession?
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| Historical Context
Throughout his presidency, Jackson delievered annual addresses on the state of the union. Attached Documents
In his fourth address, he summarizes the progress made in his first term and the issues facing his second.
Questions to Consider
1. What fiscal success does Jackson attribute to his administration?
2. In regards to a policy of high tariffs, what policies does Jackson see? According to Jackson, what effect does it have on income distribution? How does it effect the unity and stability of the country?
3. How does Jackson propose to reduce “the General Government to that simple machine which the Constitution created”?
4. Why does Jackson believe that Congress should only direct funds to projects which are only “national” in character? What effect might have it have on elections?
5. What “progress” has been achieved regarding Native Americans? What is the status of the Cherokee people?
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| Historical Context
The Anti-Masonic party emerged in 1826 as the nation’s first powerful third party. Starting out of protest to the cover up of a murder of defecting Mason, William Morgan, the party swiftly gained popularity because they seemed to provide a reason for the unresponsiveness of the government. In 1832 the party ran William Writ for President against Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson.
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| Historical Context
The National Republican Party emerged after the election of 1828. It was composed of Andrew Jackson’s political foes and the supporters of John Quincy Adams’ administration. Led by John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John M. Clayton, and Samuel Southard the party promoted the National Bank, a protective tariff to stimulate the economy, and federal government subsidization of national infrastructure improvement. They also strongly opposed the Democrats’ Indian Removal Act. In 1832 the National Republicans ran Henry Clay for President.
Questions to Consider
1. Why did Adams feel that the infrastructre of the nation was one of the most important things?
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The election of 1832 was the first one in American history to show evidence of a strong third party. Although the prominent Antimasonic party only received seven electoral votes, they did manage to pull support away from Mason Henry Clay.
Questions to Consider
1. What role did this election play in the future of the Antimasonic party?
2. The role of third parties in presidential elections has been consistent through out history. How are recent presidential elections, with third party candidates, similar to the election of 1832?
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At the end of his second term, Jackson delievered a memorable farewell address. Attached Documents
The document is noteworthy because of its prescience. In it, Jackson warned against sectarian divisions especially those existing between the North and the South. Also, he clarified his position towards many earlier policies where, he felt, his opposition was perhaps misinterpreted.
Questions to Consider
1. According to Jackson, tensions & discord exist between which two geographic regions of the United States? What are the possible consequences of this divison?
2. How does Jackson define the power of Congress to tax? What limits does he place on this power? What abuses does he see with this?
3. Who is behind the demand for a high tarrif, the Bank of the United States & the plan for currency reform? What danger does this group pose to the American people? How can this group become politically dominate?
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The Liberty Party emerged in 1839. Members of the Liberty party were commited to the abolition of slavery. In 1840 and 1844 they ran James G. Binney for president.
Questions to Consider
1. What dissapointments does Gerrit Smith have whith the Liberty Party?
2. How were these dissapointments exacerbated by the election?
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Composed of John Quincy Adams' opponents and the loyal supporters of Andrew Jackson, the Democratic Party believed in the power of a strong executive power. They espoused many of the beliefs of the Jacksonian Democracy; including states’ rights, Indian removal, westward expansion, and the sale of federal land.
Questions to Consider
1. In what ways does the Democratic Party platform reflect the views of the Jacksonian Democracy?
2. How did the platforms change over the years?
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